Role of agriculture cooperative societies

Role of agriculture cooperative societies PRIMARY AGRICULTURE COOPERATIVE SOCIETIES An agricultural cooperative society, also known as a farmers co-op, is a cooperative where farmers pool their resources in certain areas of activity. A broad typology of agricultural cooperatives distinguishes between agricultural service cooperatives, which provide various services to their individually farming members, and agricultural production cooperatives, where production resources (land, machinery) are pooled and members farm jointly. Agricultural production cooperatives are relatively rare in the world, and known examples are limited to collective farms in former socialist countries and the kibbutzim in Israel. Worker cooperatives provide an example of production cooperatives outside agriculture. The default meaning of agricultural cooperative in English is usually an agricultural service cooperative, which is the numerically dominant form in the world. There are two primary types of agricultural service cooperatives, supply cooperative and marketing cooperative. Supply cooperatives supply their members with inputs for agricultural production, including seeds, fertilizers, fuel, and machinery services. Marketing cooperatives are established by farmers to undertake transformation, packaging, distribution, and marketing of farm products (both crop and livestock). Farmers also widely rely on credit cooperatives as a source of financing for both working capital and investments. Various development activities in agriculture, small industry marketingand inprocessing, distribution and supplies are now carried on through the co-operative societies. The co-operatives societies have madean all-round progress and their role in, and contribution to agricultural progress has particularly been significant. The schemes regarding the construction of godowns and the conversion of villages into model villages have assumed great importance in the wake of the Green Revolution. INTRODUCTION OF COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT The Co-operative Movement was introduced into India by the Government. It is the only method by which the farmers could overcome their burden of debt and keep them away from the clutches of the money-lenders. The Co-operative Credit Societies Act, 1904 was passed by the Governmentof India and rural credit societies were formed. Through the appointment of registrars and through vigorous propaganda, the Government attempted to popularize the Movement in the rural areas. Within a short period, the Government realized that there are some shortcomings of the 1904 Act and, therefore, passed a more comprehensive Act, known as theCo-operative Societies Act of 1912. This Act recognized non-credit societies also. But the rural credit societies have continued to be predominant till now. MAIN FEATURES: PRIMARY AGRICULTURAL CREDIT SOCIETIES Assessment of credit needs Disbursement of credit to members Recovery of credit Promote the economic interests of the members DISTRICT CENTRAL COOPERATIVE BANKS Serve as balancing centre in the district central financing agencies Organise credit to primaries Carry out banking business Sanction, monitor control implementation of policies STATE COOPERATIVE BANKS Serve as balancing centre in the state Organize provision of credit for credit worthy farmers Carry out banking business Leader of the cooperatives in the state NATIONAL FEDERATION OF STATE COOPERATIVE BANKS Provides a common forum to the member banks Promotes and protects the interests of the member banks Co-ordinates and liaison with government of India, RESERVE BANK OF INDIA , NATIONAL BANK AND OTHERS Provides research and consultancy inputs to the member banks Organizes conferences/seminars/workshops/meetings THE PRIMARY AGRICULTURAL CREDIT/SERVICE SOCIETIES The agricultural co-operative credit structure is broadly divided into two sectors, one dealing with the short-terms andmedium-terms finance and the other with the long-term credit. The short-term and medium-term credit structureis based on a three-tier system, i.e., the Apex Co-operative Bank at the State level, the Central Co-operative Bank at the district/tehsil level and the Primary Agricultural Credit Societies at the village level. The major objectives of the primary agricultural credit service societies are to supply agricultural credit to meet the requirements of funds for agricultural production, the distribution of essential consumer commodities, the provision of storage andmarketing facilitiesand for light agricultural implements and machinery. Owing to an increasing emphasis on the development of land and agriculture, long-term co-operative credit has assumed great importance. There is the Punjab State Land Mortgage Bank at the Apex and the Punjab Mortgage Bank at the district/tehsil level. These Primary Land Mortgage Banks advance loans to the farmers for long term purposes. At the operational level, there exists a primary co-operative to extend credit to the farmer. This unit epitomizes the vitality and service potential of the Co-operative Movement in India. The organization of these societies dates back to 1904, when the first Co-operative Societies Act was passed. These societies were started with the object of providing cheap credit to the agriculturists in order to free them from the clutches of the rapacious money-lenders. The agricultural primary credit society is the foundation-stone on which the whole co-operative edifice is built. Even now these societies dominate the co-operative picture. The first Agricultural Credit Society in the Firozpur District was registered on 4 October 1911, at the Village of Khalchi Kadim in the Firozpur Tehsil. Originally, the movement was confined to the credit societies only and, thus, credit dominated till the partition (1947). After the partition, the Co-operative Movement began to spread to other field, viz labour, construction and farming. AGRICULTURAL NON-CREDIT SOCIETIES While credit is and must remain for some time the chief concern of the Co-operative Movement relatively slow, since 1912, when the non-credit societies were brought officially under the aegis of the Movement. The World War II (1939-45) came as a God send boon with respect to the development of the Co-operative Movement. Prices of agricultural goods began to rise and touched new peaks. The repayment of loans was accelerated and depositsbegan to pour in. The number of societies also rose. Another interesting development in co-operativeduring the War was the extension of the Movement to non-credit activities, viz. Consumers co-operative marketing societies, consolidation societies, etc. Agricultural co-operative Marketing Societies: Marketing has occupied a far smaller place in the co-operative picture in India than in many countries, notably Denmark and the USA, but not other non-credit line of co-operation, with the possible exception of the consolidation of land holdings and joint farming enterprises,seems to holdgreater possibilities of help to the agricultural population of India. The development of co-operative marketing in India is closely bound up with the problem of credit-the claims of the money-lenders commonly inhibiting the cultivators freedom of action in disposing of his crop. The full utilization of loans advanced depends upon the arrangements for the marketing of surplus produce. For this purpose, there the Punjab State Marketing Federation at the State Level, wholesale societies at the district level and marketing societies at the market level. These societies also provide other agricultural facilities and make arrangements for the supply of domestic items in the rural areas. At the State level, the Punjab State co-operative Supply and Marketing Federation (MARKFED) is playing an important role in building up an integrated structure for remunerative marketing and storing of agricultural produce. it has played an important role in hastening the Green Revolution in the State by arranging ready supplies of essential farm inputs needed by the cultivators. Co-operative Farming Societies: The Royal Commission on Agriculture in 1928 observed that it co-operation failed, there would fail the hope of the Indian agriculturist. Co-operative farming is a compromise between collective farming and the peasant proprietorship and gives all merits of large-scale farming without abolishing private property. It implies an organization of the farmers on the basis of common efforts for common interests. Under this system, all landowners in a village form a co-operativesociety for tilling the land. The land is pooled, but each farmer retains the right of property. The produce is distributedby each. They are allowed to withdraw from the co-operative farm whenever they desire. In India, the exceedingly small size of holdings is perhaps the most serious defect in our agriculture. If agriculture has to be improved, the size of the holdings must be enlarged. TYPE OF SOCIETIES Co-operative Weavers society Co-operative Consumers Societies Co-operative Housing Societies Co-operative Womens Societies Co-operative Milk-Societies NAME OF THE SOCIETY ADAWAD Primary Agriculture Co-operative Credit SOCIETY (713/29-1-1914) AKULKHEDE Primary Agriculture Co-operative Credit SOCIETY (7769/7-6-1937) ANWARDE BK. Primary Agriculture Co-operative Credit SOCIETY (7873/16-3-1939) ANWARDE KD. Primary Agriculture Co-operative Credit SOCIETY (5291/30-6-1926) ADGAON Primary Agriculture Co-operative Credit SOCIETY (5497/26-6-1926) AKHATWADE Primary Agriculture Co-operative Credit SOCIETY (3652/18-10-1921) BIDGAON Primary Agriculture Co-operative Credit SOCIETY (9421/18-03-1946) BUDHGAON Primary Agriculture Co-operative Credit SOCIETY (5182/10-03-1926) CHALLENGES BEFORE CO-OPERATIVES The Indian Co-operative Movement has earned distinction of being the largest in the world. This is true in terms of membership and Co-operative network which spread over almost all the villages in the country and the number of Co-operative Societies. In our country: There are about 5.5 lakhs of cooperative Societies with membership of more than 22crores. It covers a wide range of commercial activities and nearly 50% of them are engaged in agriculture and agriculture related matters. Nearly 70% of the Indian population being dependant on agriculture, is thus, connected with agricultural Co-operatives. Co-operatives have covered 100% of villages and 67% of rural households. Co-operative sector contributes 50% of total agricultural credit and distributes 35% of total fertilizer consumption in the Country. They are procuring 60% of total sugar-cane. They are also playing crucial role in the agro-processing sector i.e. processing of sugar-cane, milk, cotton and oil seeds etc. Dairy Co-operatives have excelled in their area of operation and have enabled India to attain top position in milk production in the world. Edible oil marketed through Co-operative channel is estimated at 50% and handloom Co-operatives account for 55% of the total out-put. But in spite of being largest movement in the world and strongest link, it faces number of challenges like lack of internal resources and poor mobilization of external resources, inadequate infrastructure, competitive tier structure, apathy of members towards management, lack of accountability increasing sickness, dormancy, low level professionalism, excessive government control, political interference, dominance of vested interest over the management, lack of human resources development, education and training. Despite all challenges, Co-operatives have to be sustainable over a period of time for which professionalism is a must. Co-operatives have been looking for Governmental help. But they have been paying of it like official domination and interference in their day-to-day working etc. Dr. Kuriyan, an eminent co-operator in the country said recently that the Co-operatives have undergone a crisis of identity being neither government nor private. He further said that Co-operatives need to be more efficient and competitive, but at the same time they cannot sacrifice the basic tenets of co-operation. Inefficient Co-operatives will have to either pull up their socks or down their shutters. Co-operatives have many advantages in tackling problem poverty alleviation, employment generation and food security. They also have the potential to deliver goods and services in areas where both the State and Private sectors have failed. Over the past few years, steps like the enactment of mutually aided Co-operative Societies Act by some States and the Multi-State Co-operative Societies Act have been taken to give the Co-operative sector a boost. But we are aware that the Co-operatives registered under the Mutual Aided Act have certain constraints and deficiencies, which may be Lack of supervision and inspection by Registrar of Co-operative Societies resulting into financial misuse and disproportion institutional development. Government is hesitating to entrust any important government work since it does not have any participation. These Co-operatives are away from the mainstream. The Co-operative Banks and other important institutions are not prepared to admit them as members. NABARD and RBI are not agreeing for conversion of Central and Urban Co-operative Banks. R.B.I. has also objection about the use of word Co-operative since Banking Regulation Act uses the word Co-operative Society. Perhaps we are not prepared or educated or sensitized enough to work without control and supervision. Mischievous persons may take advantage of the situation to cheat the general public. When the Government is exploring the possibility of regulating the Non-governmental organizations having vast experience, it is doubtful as to whether the mutually aided Co-operatives in various fields can give desired result. The circumstances and the situation give rise to the Co-operative Movement in the Country are still prevalent. The market is still not accessible to small and marginal farmers. Supply of agricultural credit is not adequate. About 50% of our rural and tribal household still has no facility for institutional credit. The Co-operatives are today at the cross road at their existence, particularly in view of the fast emerging economic liberalization and globalization. The Co-operatives still continued to function in a traditional way with poor governance and management, poor resource mobilization, outside interference, dependence on Government and lack of professionalization. The Co-operatives are neither member-driven nor functioned professionally in a transparent manner with accountability to members. In spite of all these, no doubt, the Co-operatives have contributed a lot to the agriculture development of the Country. We cannot afford to see that these institutions wither away. It need s reform. It is not-worthy to say that in the National Common Minimum Programme of present UPA Government it has been mentioned to bring constitutional amendment to ensure the democratic autonomous and professional functioning of Co-operatives. The constitutional amendment may limit itself with timely conduct of elections timely conduct of audit, uniform tenure of managing committee conduct of general body meetings right of a member for access to information and The accountability of the management. In this context the strategies may be as follows. Co-operatives need be member-driven; stakeholders should have a command over its affairs and activities. There is need for more transparency, more of interaction and confidence -building measures. Aggressive marketing strategy be adopted for sensitizing members and general public about the service and quality rendered by the Co-operatives. Commitment to best Service and pursuit for excellence should be the hallmark of Co-operative. Every society should adopt their customers or members charter and should meticulously adhere to this charter. Co-operative should compete with other players in prevailing market forces without any protectionist or discriminator approach. In respect of short-term, medium-term, long-term sector and Urban Bank sectors, restrictions have been stipulated by Reserve Bank of India, NABARD in respect of finance. These restrictions need be liberalized which would help Co-operative to optimize its lendable resources and provide finance to members. Strengthening information and database of Co-operatives is of utmost importance. MIS need be adopted by the process of computerization and inter-connectivity to provide best services to members and customers with anytime and anywhere service. Professionalization of management is one of the basic prerequisites of Co-operatives. Both the personnel as well as directors of committee of management should be exposed to regular training, interaction and orientation. Adoption of scientific planning for deployment of human resources on the principle of right man for the right post at right time would help Co-operatives to accelerate the pace of reforms. Human resources need be proactive. Motivation, recognition for good work and leadership be inculcated for augmenting productivity. Basic tenets corporate governance is adopted like fair play, transparency and accountability. The PACS, as the foundation of the Co-operative system are meeting the development needs of the farmers by providing credit, inputs and storage and processing and marketing facilities. The Co-operative federated at the district and State level constitutes the Co-operative system. But it is found that the Apex institutions have grown stronger whereas the primaries and in some cases, Central Co-operatives have gone weaker. The situation has to be changed and the primaries have to grow stronger. The business of the Primary Societies has to be diversified. AGRO-INPUTS DISTRIBUTION IN AGRICULTURAL COOPERATIVES Agricultural Cooperatives in India are very actively and intimately involved in several agriculture related activities. The most important activities are the disbursement of production credit and distribution of fertilizers and other inputs viz seeds, pesticides and agricultural implements. Agricultural Cooperatives are also involved in procurement of farm produce, processing and marketing of oilseeds, Cotton, sugar, milk and milk products, distribution of essential commodities, clothes, kerosene oil and merchandise etc. Coop. movement in India started way back in 1905. Till 1939, Agricultural Cooperatives in India were distributing only the credit to the farmers. Its activities got diversified to consumer articles and also some agricultural inputs in the rural areas over a period of time. Subsequently, based on the suggestions made by different committees and commissions, the cooperatives were given a significant role in distribution of fertilizers. Currently, cooperatives are playing a significant role both in production and marketing of fertilizers. Cooperatives Role in Agricultural Credit Disbursement Cooperatives play a very important role in disbursement of agricultural credit. Credit is needed both by the distribution channel as well as by the farmers. The distribution channel needs it to finance the fertilizer business and farmers need it for meeting various needs for agricultural production including purchasing fertilizers. The credit needed by the farmers for purchase of fertilizers and other inputs is called short term credit or production credit whereas credit needed by the distribution channel is called Distribution Credit. Cooperatives also play a very important role in disbursement of Medium Term and Long Term credit needed by the farmers for purchasing agricultural equipments viz tractors, installation of tube wells and land development works etc. will not be able to adopt the modern agricultural practices unless they are supported by a system which ensures adequate and timely availability of credit on reasonable terms and conditions. Credit in India is made available to the farmers through a multi-agency network consisting of cooperatives, commercial banks and Regional Rural Banks (RRBs). However, cooperatives accounts for a large proportion of the agricultural credit made available to the farmers. National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) was established in the year 1982 by an Act of Parliament and was entrusted will all matters concerning policy, planning and operation in the field of credit for agriculture and other economic activities in the rural areas. Before that, this job was being done by Reserve Bank of India itself. NABARD works for progressive institutionalization of the rural credit and ensures that the demands for credit from agriculture including the new and upcoming areas like floriculture, tissue culture, bio-fertilizers, sprinkler irrigation, drip irrigation etc. are met. The medium and long term of loans are disbursed to the farmers through Primary Land Development Banks (757) who draw their finances from Central Land Development Banks (20) who in turn draw their finances from NABARD. As for the short term credit, this is disbursed to the farmers through Primary Agricultural Credit Societies (PACS -66,200) who draw their finances from Central Cooperative Banks (363) who in turn draw their finances from the State Cooperative Banks (29). The State Cooperative Banks draw their finances from NABARD. Cooperatives Role in Fertilizer Distribution Agriculture continues to be the mainstay of Indias national economy. Its contribution to Indias Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is about 30 per cent. Nearly two thirds of the population still depends on this sector directly or indirectly. Self-sufficiency in food grains has been the basic objective of Indias policy on agriculture. Food grain reduction has increased from the level of 52 thousand tones in 1951-52 to 199 million tonnes in 1996-97. However, the food grain production declined to 193 million tonnes in 1997-98. The present population of the country is about 960 million and is likely to touch 1000 million by the turn of this century. To feed this level of population, India has to produce 208 million tonnes of food grains from the present level of 193 million tonnes which is; no doubt, a gigantic task The vital role of fertilizers in increasing agricultural production is well recognized. Since, the land man ratio is declining due to increasing population; the additional food gra in production has to come by increasing the productivity of land under cultivation. Adoption of modern agricultural practices is the only way for increasing agricultural productivity. This calls for application of inputs like chemical fertilizers, high yielding seeds and pesticides besides use of mechanical equipments like seed-cum-fertilizer drills, sprayers, pump sets etc. Chemical fertilizers are very costly, particularly the phosphatic and potassic ones which have been decontrolled w.e.f 25th August, 1992. Urea, of course, is relatively low priced due to grant of subsidy by GOI. However, unless balanced trients are applied, the productivity cannot be sustained. Fertilizer Distribution Channels Fertilizers are produced/ imported at about 200 locations in the country and distributed to the farmers scattered through the length and breadth of the country in about 600,000 villages through a network comprising of private and institutional channels. Some quantities are also made available through manufacturers own outlets. Private trade accounts for about 60 per cent of the total fertilizers distributed in the country followed by institutional agencies at 35 per cent and remaining 5 percent through the manufacturers own outlets. Among the institutional agencies, cooperatives are the main agency which alone account for nearly 30% of the total fertilizer business. The total number of fertilizer sale points in the country is 262,000; out of which about 71,000 (27%) are institutional agencies sale points (mainly cooperatives) and the remaining 1, 91,000 (73 %) are controlled by the private trade. Cooperative Channels Cooperatives are the main institutional agency in the country handling fertilizers. Cooperative network, at present, comprises of 29 state level marketing federations, 171 district level marketing societies and about 66,200 village level cooperative societies. These village level cooperative societies are generally called Primary Agricultural Credit Societies (PACS). These societies are the backbone of the cooperative marketing system. These societies are well spread in the entire country covering 97 % of the 0.6 million villages and 95 % of the farming families. The other main institutional agencies engaged in the distribution of fertilizers are State Agro-Industries Development Corporations, Commodity Federations and State Departments of Agriculture etc. They operate both through their own sale depots as well as through the private dealers network. However, their share is only marginal. The cooperative structure differs from state to state and societies at different levels (district/taluka/village) perform different functions in different states. Generally, the cooperative network operates through a 3 tier system. However, in some states such as Haryana, the cooperative marketing system operates on 2 tier basis, while in some others like Gujarat a 4 tier system exists. At the state level, Apex Cooperative Marketing Federations act as wholesalers; marketing societies at district/taluka level as sub-wholesalers while PACS, PAMS (Primary Agricultural Marketing Societies) at grass root level act as retailers. The function of State level Apex Cooperative Marketing Federations differ from state to state. In some states, the Federations are actively involved in fertilizer business like Gujarat, Haryana, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh etc. and they act as the wholesalers for the entire State. In some States like Uttar Pradesh (U.P.), they are not directly involved in the fertilizer business and do the job of liaison and coordination only for which they are getting service charges from the fertilizer suppliers. In U.P., the State Federation is also doing warehousing as well as transportation job both for IFFCO and KRIBHCO (The only manufacturers in the cooperative sector). In the States where Federation is not involved in fertilizer business, the manufacturers are supplying fertilizers directly to the lower societies at the district/village level and the societies are getting full or near full distribution margin which has improved the financial health of these societies. CURRENT COOPERATIVE FERTILISER DISTRIBUTION STATUS Presently, in Gujarat, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, J K, H.P. and Assam, in the cooperative sector, fertiliser supplies are made to the Apex Coop. Marketing Federations only and they act as wholesalers. Direct supplies are not there at all. Only small quantities under the special scheme like IFFCO-NCDC scheme in Haryana and IFFCO societies adoption programme in M.P. are supplied directly to the societies. In these states district level societies operate as sub-wholesalers. In the states like Punjab, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Orissa A.P. and Kerala, both the systems i.e. supply through federation as well as direct supply to the societies are prevalent. As a result, some of the societies at the lower levels are getting supplies directly from the manufacturers while others are getting from the Federations. However, in the states of U.P. and Bihar, supplies of fertilisers are made to the village level societies directly by the manufacturers. In states where state level federations act as wholesalers, the manufacturer has to deal with only one agency. Consequently, the job of sales planning, movement and stocks planning, realisation of sales proceeds etc. becomes very easy. In states where manufacturer deals with the lower tier cooperatives directly, the volume of work increases many fold and it becomes much more complex. The material has to be released to individual societies and the sales proceeds realisation has also to be done at that level only. This requires deployment of larger field force. Decentralised release system leads to establishing larger number of warehouses and correspondingly larger inventory. This all increases the operating cost. Manufacturers Own Outlets Some manufacturers viz. IFFCO, KRIBHCO, GSFC, GNFC and NFL have their own retail outlets called Farmers Service Centres or Service Centres or Farm Information Centres etc. In these outlets, agricultural inputs like fertilisers, seeds, agro-chemicals and agricultural implements etc. are made available to the farmers under one roof along with agricultural production technology literature. The main motto of these service centres is not only to provide all quality agro-inputs to the farmers but also educating them on scientific agricultural by providing technical know how in the field of agriculture. This help the farmers in increasing their agricultural productivity and profitability. Promotion activities are also carried out in the villages located around these centres ( within radius of 8-10 kms) which includes demonstrations, farmers meetings, soil test campaigns, crop seminars etc. In addition, social campaigns like tree plantations, medical check-up, veterinary check up etc. are also organised. They also serve the purpose additional/alternative distribution channel for the organisation. POLICY PLANNING OF COOPERATION DEPARTMENT The Department of Cooperation is responsible for promotion and development of Cooperatives, which have been recognised as an instrument of planned economic development and all-round socio-economic transformation, particularly in rural areas of the State. The Department formulates policies in this behalf and prepares plans to execute the policies. The Department has reoriented its policies during the last four years, 1997-2000 to enhance professional competence, encourage adoption of modern methods of management and to introduce required structural, administrative and techno-legal reforms in Cooperatives to meet the challenges of economic liberalization and globalization in the country. Some of the Policies are: Promotion and Development of Cooperatives The Department has so far pursued a policy of providing catalytic assistance, which include financial and technical assistance, to all Cooperatives in the State, irrespective of the fact whether they were involved in execution of policies and programmes of the Government or not. This policy has now been reforme

The Morality of Torture Essay -- The Ethics of Torture

Torture is a controversial topic in today’s society. What is torture? Torture can be defined as, ‘the act of inflicting excruciating pain, as punishment or revenge, as a means of getting a confession or information, or for sheer cruelty.’(Dershowitz, A) According to international law, it is illegal to use torture in any situation of any kind. Though torture undoubtedly continues throughout the world, the moral argument prohibiting torture should or could be justified. However, the question of torture has resurfaced in the context of the â€Å"Is There A Torturous Road to Justice† mainly focusing on the attacks of 911. Seemingly, the topic of torture became more demanding after millions of lives lose and threaten after the attacks on the United States. The dilemma of torture is commonly expressed towards problem of the ‘ticking bomb terrorist.’ In this essay, I will argue that torture is unsubstantial conflicting as a moral and immoral belief. Many individuals would argue that torture is immorally wrong and views it as a malevolent form of punishment, but on the other hand, a solider fighting in war may see it as a justifiable action towards protecting themselves, other citizens, and the country. Nevertheless, if torture is so immoral, why is the topic so hard to explain? Within the society of social order, many people would say that torture is a shameful action for those who support it and or participate in agony. This may be valid, but this argument could be compared to other criminal scenarios. For instance, a person who commits a crime such as stealing a car and injuring someone or harming a person with the intent to kill, in this society these actions could be seen as immoral action. During the criminal sanction, they could... ... but it may be seen as a learned willing action to protect. Torturing a person in other words is seen as unconstitutional, but to understand why it is somewhat problematic, just imagine being in the position of a torturer and torture, both predicaments is understandable hard to bare with from a citizen standpoint. Mitigating the stance on torture becomes somewhat impossible, especially for those who carry out the action, and or for those that make the laws and pass them. Justifying this action is undoubtedly hard to differ between moral or immoral actions. In this situation as mentioned before, it seems that the lives of millions of individuals compensate one individual life. Works Cited Hinman, Lawrence M.. Contemporary moral issues: diversity and consensus. 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2005. Print.

Stuff

People exploring new experiences will have to overcome many challenges, and will undergo personal growth. ‘Into the World' can be interpreted as outlooks of growing up and adjustment into new stages of a person's life. It can mean changing normally, or having to change without any choice In the matter. In either case, any person exploring new experiences will encounter challenges, but along the way they will undergo personal growth. This is apparent In the prescribed text, The Story of TomBrenna' by J Burke, as well as my chosen text, ‘The Arrival' by Shawn Tan. The Idea of ‘new experiences' may not always begin positively. For Instance, In Burke's novel, The Story of Tom Brenna', one disastrous accident made him and his family to leave their hometown of Mumble, forcing every character to go through an emotional release. This provokes Tom to become very reserved and distant as he grows resentful and bitter of the whole predicament and progressively being pushed â₠¬Å"back Into that big, black hole†.He becomes very depressed, reclusive and alienated as he attempts to deal with the situation that his brother, Daniel, has caused. The author projects Tom's thoughts, emotions, perceptions and opinions through a large range of techniques. The audience is aware of Tom's growing guilt through the technique of first person writing (on page 124). â€Å"Like I said, that was a low point. † The believable, grammatical, impressionistic voice of the teenage narrator creates a confidential allegations with the readers, as well as keeping them engaged.It also gives us insight into Tom's inner most thoughts. As Tom plunges into intense feelings of guilt and animosity, he becomes numb to the struggles the other members of his family are facing. One of the most effective and engaging techniques used by the author to capture the reader's attention, is the use of flashbacks. The Story of Tom Brenna is a nonlinear narrative, and this is first evident in the prologue, which has a reflective tone, when it

Conventional Morality Essay Essay Example

Conventional Morality Essay Essay Example Conventional Morality Essay Paper Conventional Morality Essay Paper Lawrence Kohlberg: â€Å"Physical effects of an action determine its goodness or badness regardless of the human significance or value of these effects. Avoidance of penalty and unquestioning respect to power are valued in their ain right. non in footings of regard for an implicit in moral order supported by penalty and authorization. † ( Duska. R. and Whelan. M. . 1975 ) Summary: The concern is for ego – â€Å"Will I get into problem for making ( or non making ) it? † Good behavior is associated with avoiding penalty. Insufficiency of Stage 1 logical thinking: Avoidance of penalty regardless of the ethical value of the actions is unhealthy particularly under â€Å"bad† governments such as Adolf Hitler. * Phase 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation Lawrence Kohlberg: Right action is â€Å"that which instrumentally satisfies one’s ain demands and on occasion the demands of others. † â€Å"Human dealingss are viewed in footings like those of the market place ; elements of equity. reciprocality and equal sharing are present. but they are ever interpreted in a physical or matter-of-fact manner. Reciprocity is a affair of ‘you scratch my dorsum and I’ll abrasion yours. ’ non of trueness. gratitude or justness. † ( Duska. R. and Whelan. M. . 1975 ) Summary: The concern is â€Å"What’s in it for me? † It is still egoistic in mentality but with a turning ability to see things from another person’s position. Action is judged right if it helps in fulfilling one’s demands or involves a just exchange. Inadequacy of Stage 2 logical thinking: Where the demands of different persons struggle. can there of all time be a just exchange? Doesn’t this struggle call for forfeit from one of the parties? Degree 2 – Conventional Morality People at this phase conform to the conventions / regulations of a society. * Phase 3: Good Boy-Nice Girl Orientation Lawrence Kohlberg: â€Å"Good behaviour is that which pleases or helps others and is approved by them. There is much conformance to stereotyped images of what is bulk or ‘natural’ behavior. Behavior is often judged by purpose. ‘He means well’ becomes of import for the first clip. One earns blessing by being ‘nice. ‘† ( Duska. R. and Whelan. M. . 1975 ) Summary: The concern is â€Å"What will people believe of me? † and the desire is for group blessing. Right action is one that would delight or affect others. This frequently involves selflessnesss but it provides the psychological pleasance of ‘approval of others. ‘ Actions are besides judged in relation to their purpose. Insufficiency of Stage 3 logical thinking: * Same individual. different functions OR Different groups. different outlooks * Different people. different functions * People non populating up to their responsibilities or functions * Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation Lawrence Kohlberg: â€Å"Right behaviour consists in making one’s responsibility. demoing regard for authorization and keeping the given societal order for its ain interest. † A individual in this phase â€Å"orients to society as a system of fixed regulation. jurisprudence and authorization with the chance of any divergence from regulations as taking to societal pandemonium. † ( Duska. R. and Whelan. M. . 1975 ) Summary: The concern now goes beyond one’s immediate group ( s ) to the larger society †¦ to the care of jurisprudence and order. One’s duty to the jurisprudence overrides one’s duties of trueness to one’s household. friends and groups. To set it merely. no 1 or group is above the jurisprudence. Inadequacy of Stage 4 logical thinking: * Unquestioning obeisance toward authorization is unhealthy. * Accepted societal order may non be the best possible order. The Torahs of society may even be bad. Degree 3 – POSTConventional Morality The moral rules that underline the conventions of a society in this degree are understood. * Phase 5: Social Contract Orientation Lawrence Kohlberg: â€Å"Generally with useful overtones. Right action tends to be defined in footings of general single rights and in footings of criterions which have been critically examined and agreed upon by the whole society †¦ with an accent upon the possibility of altering jurisprudence in footings of rational consideration of societal public-service corporation ( instead than stiffly keeping it in footings of Stage 4 jurisprudence and order ) . † ( Duska. R. and Whelan. M. . 1975 ) Summary: The concern is societal public-service corporation or public involvement. While regulations are needed to keep societal order. they should non be blindly obeyed but should be set up ( even changed ) by societal contract for the greater good of society. Right action is one that protects the rights of the single harmonizing to regulations agreed upon by the whole society. Insufficiency of Stage 5 logical thinking: How do we get at a consensus on the regulations that are good for society? Should a bulk group enforce their penchants on a minority group? What if you disagree with the determination of the bulk? * Phase 6: Universal Ethical Principle Orientation Lawrence Kohlberg: â€Å"Right is defined by the determination of scruples in agreement with self-chosen ethical rules appealing to logical fullness. catholicity and consistence. These rules are abstract and ethical ( the aureate regulation. the categorical jussive mood ) and are non concrete moral regulations like the Ten Commandments. At bosom. these are cosmopolitan rules of justness. of the reciprocality and equality of human rights. and of regard for the self-respect of human existences as single individuals. † ( Duska. R. and Whelan. M. . 1975 ) Summary: The concern is for moral rules †¦ an action is judged right if it is consistent with self-chosen ethical rules. These rules are non concrete moral regulations but are cosmopolitan rules of justness. reciprocality. equality and human self-respect. Insufficiency of Stage 6 logical thinking: Our scruples is non an infallible usher to behaviour because it works harmonizing to the rules we have adopted. Furthermore. who or what determines these cosmopolitan rules? Although moral logical thinking does non needfully take to moral action. the latter is based in portion on one’s capacity to ground about moral picks. Kohlberg was more concerned with the logical thinking of the action than the action itself. And that concluding when acted upon becomes our motive. II – ETHICAL RELATIVISM * Cultural Relativism ( sociological relativism ) : The descriptive position that different groups of people have different moral criterions for measuring Acts of the Apostless as right or incorrect. A. Therefore. it is non an ethical doctrine–it’s a sociological or experimental conclusion–even so ; the position is slightly equivocal. B. For illustration. different groups might hold the same basic moral rule. but apply the rule in radically different state of affairss. 1. A 2nd sense of cultural relativism is less obvious. I. e. . that different civilizations differ on basic moral rules. 2. A possible ground for the observation of cultural relativism is shown by the illustration of basic moral rules which could be said to back up different moral regulations harmonizing to the readings of different civilizations. In the undermentioned diagrams. there are two immensely different readings listed for each moral rule. * Ethical Relativism: the normative position that ( 1 ) different groups of people ought to hold different ethical criterions for measuring Acts of the Apostless as right or incorrect. ( 2 ) these different beliefs are true in their several societies. and ( 3 ) these different beliefs are non cases of a basic moral rule. A. The ethical relativist frequently derives support for his place by two basic errors: 1. The relativist confuses cultural ( or sociological ) relativism with ethical relativism. but cultural relativism is a descriptive position and ethical relativism is a normative position. ( E. g. . cultural relativismdescribes the manner the manner people really behave. and ethical relativism prescribes the manner people ought to act. 2. The ethical relativist frequently argues as follows: â€Å"An absolute ethical criterion has neer been proved beyond uncertainty in the history of idea. Thus. an absolute ethical criterion does non be. † This statement is an case ad ignorantiam false belief. P is unproven ; not-p is true. From the fact that a statement has non been proved. we can logically pull no decision. B. Expostulations to ethical relativism. 1. The Differing Ideals Objection ( or. as it is sometimes called. the lingual expostulation ) : it is inconsistent to state that the same pattern is considered right in one society and considered incorrect in another. ( If â€Å"right† and â€Å"wrong† are to hold consistent significance. so the footings must be used in the same manner. ) Possible counter-objections ( by the ethical relativist ) : a. The relativist sometimes states that â€Å"right† and â€Å"wrong† have no consistent significance. These words reflect merely emotion or possibly the ceremonial usage of linguistic communication. In other words. this defence shades into ethical subjectivism. Counter-counter-objection ( by ethical absolutist ) : The job with believing that â€Å"right† and â€Å"wrong† have no consistent significance is the ordinary usage of words in this instance consequences in nonsense. What would go on if people used the same word in different state of affairss to mention to different things? Communication would non take topographic point. B. Some ethical relativists believe ethical words are reducible to non-ethical values ; e. g. . these words have to make with recommendations for endurance or wellbeing. Counter-counter-objection ( by ethical absolutist ) : the job here is merely the trouble of understanding the nature of a non-ethical value. Would a non-ethical value be an aesthetic value? c. Some relativists believe we can warrant relativism by intuition. disclosure. authorization. etc. Counter-counter-objection ( by ethical absolutist ) : these efforts are subjectively based ; they differ from clip to clip and topographic point to topographic point. 2. Mental Health Objection to ethical relativism ( from the definition or standard of a group ) : If â€Å"what is right in one group is incorrect in another. † where precisely does one group terminal and another Begin? Counter-objections to the Mental Health Objection ( by the relativist ) : * Right and incorrect are to be determined in the state of affairs. * Right and incorrect are to be determined by what the bulk determine at the clip and topographic point. * Right and incorrect are finally established by power or authorization. 3. Ad Populum Objection to the relativist’s belief that moralss is established by what most people believe: Simply because most people think something is right does non thereby do it right. Simply because most people think a statement is true does notmake that statement true Counter-objections to the ad populum expostulation ( by the relativist ) : a. The same trouble of set uping the significance of â€Å"right† and â€Å"wrong† issues for the absolutist. pari passu. The absolutist has been unable to province a universally agreed upon intending to the footings. ( Notice that this response is a discrepancy of the ad hominem- tu quoque. ) B. Other solutions to the inquiries of the significance of cardinal ethical footings harmonizing to the relativist are possible by appealing to survival value. consensus gentium. and so on 4. Moral Progress Expostulation: If ethical relativism were right. there could be no such thing as moral betterment or intent in civilizations or a person’s life. To hold betterment. we must hold a criterion by which to judge the difference in moral values. Counter-objections ( by the relativist ) : a. That’s correct–we can do no such judgement that one society is better than another. We could merely judge by our ain values. B. If something like â€Å"survival value† is used to anchor moral beliefs. so moral betterment might be identified with â€Å"increased cognition refering endurance of the society. † * Ethical Absolutism: the normative position that there are basic or cardinal ethical rules which are true without making or exclusion as to clip. status. or circumstance. * Ethical Nihilism: the position that ethical footings such as â€Å"right† and â€Å"wrong† have no significance or are nonsensical. A. Expostulation: but something is meant when we say. â€Å"X is incorrect. † Counter-objections ( by the nihilist ) : 1. If there is no empirical significance to the footings. they have no â€Å"cash value. † ( Q. v. . positivism. ) 2. â€Å"Whatever can be said. can be said clearly. † The load of cogent evidence that the footings have significance is on the non-nihilist. * Ethical Incredulity: the position that ethical footings such as â€Å"right† and â€Å"wrong† might hold intending but their significance can non be established. A. Expostulation to incredulity at this point is methodological. Ethical incredulity should non be held a priori at the beginning of an probe but should merely be a possible result after a thorough survey.

The Comanche Language and Cultural Preservation Committee Essay Example

The Comanche Language and Cultural Preservation Committee Essay Example The Comanche Language and Cultural Preservation Committee Paper The Comanche Language and Cultural Preservation Committee Paper The paper will discuss the main aspect of a Comanche and what their culture is like. The paper encapsulates an interview from such a Native American and this interview will be analyzed with the help of other sources from the Internet. The paper will be followed by first introducing the Comanche tribe with their features and then go about analyzing the interview. The culture of the Comanche will be discussed in the light of how they treat their elders, children and their relatives. The culture also includes some of their important aspects of religion along with the language that they use. The paper will attempt to cover the overall aspect of the Comanche and their effect in the society. Introduction to a Comanche â€Å"The Comanche are a Native American group whose historical range (the Comancheria) consisted of present-day Eastern New Mexico, Southern Colorado, Southern Kansas, all of Oklahoma, and most of Northern and Southern Texas. There might once have been as many as 20,000 Comanches. Today, the Comanche Nation consists of approximately 10,000 members, about half of whom live in Oklahoma (centered at Lawton), with the remainder concentrated in Texas, California, and New Mexico. † (Wikipedia, 2006 ) From the above definition it can be understood that the Comanches are very old inhabitants of the United States of America and have long lived there. There are a number of reasons why the Comanches had left their older origin which is near Wyoming. The tribe had shifted to Arkansas where they are now inhabited. The reason why the Comanche is given a name like that is because it is believed that they like to fight and act as strangers to the other people. The origin of Comanche comes from a Spanish word and this is why it is used. They have always been a separate group and have not mingled much with the other tribes and other citizens of the country. Interview of a Comanche The name of the interviewee was Andrea Pahdocony who belongs to a tribe called Comanche of Oklahoma Lord of the Plains). The following questions and answers provide a summary of what their culture is like and how they live their lives. The questions and answers will then be analyzed along with other material to understand what their culture and beliefs are along with their values. Question # 1 Does your culture have several meanings for one word when spoken? For example, the English language uses the word tow to represent something pulling something else or it can be used to refer to a persons toe. Can you think of some examples? Changes in the language began in the late 1800s when children were taken from their homes and placed in boarding schools. They were discouraged from speaking their native tongue, and disciplined harshly for doing so. This treatment was not unique to Comanche people, but with native people throughout the newly discovered America. Government policy dictated the civilization of the First Americans, in part, by denying them their language. The children were taught the language of their parents and grandparents was bad. With this indoctrination, the language was not spoken in the home. English became the language of preference. By the mid 1900s, elders who could speak the language fluently were dying at an alarming rate and children were not being taught the language in order to maintain speakers within the tribe. In 2006, there are 13,000 enrolled Comanches, yet there are fewer than 1% who speak the language fluently. Analysis of the Interview The interview explains that the Native American has a clear set of values and beliefs that he follows that have come down from his ancestors. There are a number of times when the values are not followed but the traditions are kept intact. The tribe believes in teaching the children the traditions of the ancestors to keep the tribe alive. The tribe has been unsocial fro several years and even decades with the other Native Americans and citizens because they would have a different dialect and would be unable to communicate with anyone. The tribal members would just continue to use the same to communicate with one another. The children have now learned to sue the English language but there is a need to also learn their language because of the communication gap that may appear between two generations if this not done. The tribe emphasizes on respect to elders but it is not necessary that the children talk without meeting with the eye. Eye contact is considered as a tradition. The Comanche tribe is a famous and a very social group within itself that keeps up the traditions and the values of the ancestors very strongly. Bibliography Wikipedia. 2006. Comanche. Retrieved on December 18, 2006 from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comanche.

CEOs Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

CEOs - Article Example However, the gap is mainly due to the reason that the CEOs have a far rosier view of the team performance than other members of the team. On the other hand, the team members are not able to be frank and outspoken due to their own inhibitions. It is common knowledge that good communication ishighly essential for effective leadership. A CEO has to understand how to make real conversation with his team members. But, creating a high-performance team is about a lot more than just communicating.Thoughtful CEOs realize the fact that the key contributor to overall effectiveness of the team is the team process and the right structure. Team process involves aspects such ashow the teamworks together, its decision-making patterns, how it manages conflict, andhow effective the team is in responding to changes in the environment. Structure includes the composition of the team, definition of roles, decision rights, and rewards that shape individual behavior in a team context. There is yet another important step every CEO needs to take. A CEO must analyze as to what he/she is good at when it comes to leading his/her team. What a CEO cannot do, he/she should get it done through others. For instance, a CEO who is not efficient in communication may seek outside help for the same. After all, a CEO is not promoted to such a position because he/she is an excellent coach, but due to other qualities such as achieving the desired business results, understanding external markets, being aggressive in introducing new products or expanding into new geographies. Seeking help from others may mean seeking help from consultants, may it be an external or internal consultant, but someone outside the team. Somebody who is not on the team is a great aid in making the team perform better because they have no stake in the content of any of the discussions and hence can view thingsfrom an impartial perspective. This article can mainly be related to the various steps involved in effective team building. These steps can be summarized as follows: Ensure the team goals are totally clear and completely understood by each team member. Ensure clarity in who is responsible for what and avoid overlapping authority. Build trust with team members by creating an atmosphere of honesty and openness. Recognize interpersonal issues early and deal with it in full. Ensure there are no blocked lines of communications and you and your people are kept fully informed. Involve the whole team in the decision making process. Not limit one to merely negative or positive aspects; practice fairness. Learning from George Washington's Leadership Reported by: Francesca Di Meglio Source: www.businessweek.com Link: http://www.businessweek.com/bschools/content/apr2008/bs20080422_057896.htm George Washington was notonly the first US President, but also anexcellent leaderwith amodern style of leadership. Mark McNeilly, author of'George Washington and the Art of Business: The Leadership Principles of America's First Commander-in-Chief,' in his book examines Washington's career and also points out the qualities of Washington that made him such an outstanding leader. Washington had traits like self-discipline, strong character, physical and moral courage, persistence, and integrity. Washington also was highly innovative. For

U.S. Congress Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

U.S. Congress - Research Paper Example istics, which would range from data on party affiliation, the average age of the members, occupation, education levels, length of congressional service. Other characteristics include; their religious affiliation, gender, ethnicity, foreign births as well as military service (Brownworth). In the congress as at February 2013, the House of Representatives had a maximum of 232 republicans and 206 democrats plus 5 delegates and the resident commissioner. The senate on the other hand had 45 republicans against 53 democrats. There were also 2 independent who caucus with the democrats. At the beginning of the 113th tenure, the average age of the members of the congress was found to be 57.0 years while that of senators was 62.0 years. A majority of the members of the congress have attained at least a college education. The members dominantly possess professions ranging from public service/politics, business and law. The religion affiliation of most of the members is either Christians or Protestants with the largest single religious denomination being Catholics; 31% of the Members (136 in the House, 27 in the Senate) are Catholic. The length of service averagely of the representatives is averagely worked out to be 9.1 years, which is 4.6 terms; the senators’ term is 10 .2 years, which is 1.7 terms. The one hundred and thirteenth house has a record number of women that stands at one hundred; 18.5% of total membership. 80 of this number are found in the House a number that includes 3 delegates while 20 of these women are found in the senate (Brownworth). In terms of ethnicity, we have 43 African American members of the house while 2 are found in the senate. It is worth noting that this number includes two delegates. The same house has 38 Hispanic serving in the congress of which 34 are in the house including 1 delegate and the resident commissioner while 4 are there in the senate. 13 members of the house in the order of 10 who are the representatives, 2 delegates and 1